A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances In chemistry, a chemical substance is a material with a specific chemical composition to another.^[1] Chemical reactions can be either spontaneous A spontaneous process is the time-evolution of a system in which it releases free energy and moves to a lower, more thermodynamically stable, energy state. The sign convention of changes in free energy follows the general convention for thermodynamic measurements, in which a release of free energy from the system corresponds to a negative change, requiring no input of energy In physics, energy is a quantity that can be assigned to every particle, object, and system of objects as a consequence of the state of that particle, object or system of objects. Different forms of energy include kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, elastic, light, and electromagnetic energy. The forms of energy are often named, or non-spontaneous, often coming about only after the input of some type of energy, viz. heat In physics and thermodynamics, heat is the process of energy transfer from one body or system to another due to thermal contact, which in turn is defined as an energy transfer to a body in any other way than due to work performed on the body, light Light is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye . In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not or electricity Electricity is a general term that encompasses a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning and static electricity, but in addition, less familiar concepts, such as the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic induction. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion of electrons The electron is a subatomic particle carrying a negative electric charge. It has no known components or substructure, and therefore is believed to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. The intrinsic angular momentum of the electron is a half integer value in units of ħ, which means that in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms or molecules and allows the formation of chemical compounds, which contain two or more atoms. A chemical bond is the attraction caused by the electromagnetic force between opposing charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction. The strength of bonds varies, although the general concept of a chemical reaction, in particular the notion of a chemical equation A chemical equation is symbolic representation of a chemical reaction where the reactant entities are given on the left hand side and the product entities on the right hand side. The coefficients next to the symbols and formulae of entities are the absolute values of the stoichiometric numbers. The first chemical equation was diagrammed by Jean, is applicable to transformations of elementary particles In theoretical quantum physics a physical quantity, like a cross section, is often calculated using the so called perturbation theory, where the quantity is represented as an infinite series, that is, a sum of ever decreasing terms. A Feynman diagram is an intuitive graphical representation of a term in this series, as well as nuclear reactions In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, a nuclear reaction is the process in which two nuclei or nuclear particles collide to produce products different from the initial particles. In principle a reaction can involve more than three particles colliding, but because the probability of three or more nuclei to meet at the same time at the same.

The substance/substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants A reagent is a "substance or compound that is added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction or is added to see if a reaction occurs". Such a reaction is used to confirm the presence of another substance. Examples of such analytical reagents include Fehling's reagent, Millon's reagent and Tollens' reagent. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change In a chemical change, bonds are broken and new bonds are formed between different atoms. This breaking and forming of bonds takes place when particles of the original materials collide with one another. Some exothermic reactions may be hot enough to cause certain chemicals to also undergo a change in state; for example in the case of aqueous, and they yield one or more products A product is a substance that forms as a result of a biological- or chemical reaction. While the end product of some chemical reactions may be the result of a relatively rapid reaction, nanoseconds to seconds, chemical equilibria in complex systems may require years or even centuries to be established. For example, equilibria in groundwater, which usually have properties different from the reactants.

Different chemical reactions are used in combination in chemical synthesis In chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations usually involving one or more reactions. In modern laboratory usage, this tends to imply that the process is reproducible, reliable, and established to work in multiple in order to get a desired product. In biochemistry Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. It deals with the structures and functions of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules. Over the last 40 years biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life, series of chemical reactions catalyzed Catalysis is the change in rate of a chemical reaction due to the participation of a substance called a catalyst. Unlike other reagents that participate in the chemical reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in multiple chemical transformations. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive by enzymes Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their form metabolic pathways In biochemistry, metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each pathway, a principal chemical is modified by chemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze these reactions, and often require dietary minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors in order to function properly. Because of the many chemicals that may be involved,, by which syntheses and decompositions ordinarily impossible in conditions within a cell are performed.

Reaction types

Some common kinds of reactions are listed below. Note that it is perfectly possible for a single reaction to fall under more than one category:

• Isomerisation In chemistry isomerisation is the process by which one molecule is transformed into another molecule which has exactly the same atoms, but the atoms are rearranged e.g. A-B-C → B-A-C . In some molecules and under some conditions, isomerisation occurs spontaneously. Many isomers are equal or roughly equal in bond energy, and so exist in roughly, in which a chemical compound undergoes a structural rearrangement without any change in its net atomic composition;
• Direct combination A Combination Reaction or a Synthesis Reaction is a general category of a chemical reaction , in which two or more reagents are chemically bonded together to produce a single product.when two or more substances combine to form a single product, it is known as a combination reaction. This reaction is usually exothermic because when the bond forms or synthesis In chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations usually involving one or more reactions. In modern laboratory usage, this tends to imply that the process is reproducible, reliable, and established to work in multiple, in which 2 or more chemical elements or compounds unite to form a more complex product:

N Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere₂ + 3 H Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of 1.00794 u (1.007825 u for Hydrogen-1), hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75 % of the Universe's elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its₂ → 2 NH₃ Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent odour. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of

• Chemical decomposition Chemical decomposition or analysis is the separation of a chemical compound into elements or simpler compounds. It is sometimes defined as the exact opposite of a chemical synthesis. Chemical decomposition is often an undesired chemical reaction. The stability that a chemical compound ordinarily has is eventually limited when exposed to extreme or analysis, in which a compound is decomposed into smaller compounds or elements:

2 H₂O Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state, water vapor or steam → 2 H₂ + O Oxygen (pronounced /ˈɒksɨdʒɨn/, OK-si-jin, from the Greek roots ὀξύς (acid, literally "sharp", from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter), is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table, and is a highly₂

• Single displacement A single-displacement reaction, also called single-replacement reaction, is a type of oxidation-reduction chemical reaction when an element or ion moves out of one compound and into another. This is usually written as or substitution In a substitution reaction, a functional group in a particular chemical compound is replaced by another group . In organic chemistry, the electrophilic and nucleophilic substitution reactions are of prime importance. Organic substitution reactions are classified in several main organic reaction types depending on whether the reagent that brings, characterized by an element being displaced out of a compound by a more reactive In introductory chemistry, the reactivity series or activity series is an empirical series of metals, in order of "reactivity" from highest to lowest. It is used to summarize information about the reactions of metals with acids and water, single displacement reactions and the extraction of metals from their ores element:

2 Na Sodium is a metallic element with a symbol Na (from Latin natrium or Arabic ناترون natrun; perhaps ultimately from Egyptian netjerj) and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal and is a member of the alkali metals within "group 1" (formerly known as ‘group IA’). It has only one stable isotope, 23Na(s) + 2 HCl The compound hydrogen chloride has the formula H (aq) An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water. It is usually shown in chemical equations by appending to the relevant formula. The word aqueous means pertaining to, related to, similar to, or dissolved in water. As water is an excellent solvent as well as naturally abundant, it is a ubiquitous solvent in chemistry → 2 NaCl Sodium chloride, also known as salt, common salt, table salt, or halite, is an ionic compound with the formula Na (aq) + H₂(g)

• Metathesis Metathesis is a molecular process involving the exchange of bonds between the two reacting chemical species, which results in the creation of products with similar or identical bonding affiliations. This is represented by the general reaction scheme: or Double displacement reaction, in which two compounds exchange ions An ion is an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge. An anion , from the Greek word ἀνω (anο), meaning "up", is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively or bonds to form different compounds:

NaCl Sodium chloride, also known as salt, common salt, table salt, or halite, is an ionic compound with the formula Na (aq) + AgNO₃ Silver nitrate is an inorganic compound with chemical formula AgNO3. This compound is a versatile precursor to many other silver compounds, such as those used in photography. It is far less sensitive to light than the halides. It was once called lunar caustic because silver was called luna by the ancient alchemists(aq) → NaNO₃ Sodium nitrate is the chemical compound with the formula NaNO3. This salt, also known as "Chile saltpeter" or "Peru saltpeter" , is a white solid which is very soluble in water. The mineral form is also known as nitratine or soda niter(aq) + AgCl Silver chloride is a chemical compound with the chemical formula Ag (s)

• Acid-base An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. Several concepts that provide alternative definitions for the reaction mechanisms involved and their application in solving related problems exist. Despite several differences in definitions, their importance becomes apparent as different methods of analysis when reactions, broadly characterized as reactions between an acid An acid is any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion activity greater than in pure water, i.e. a pH less than 7.0 in its standard state. That approximates the modern definition of Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Martin Lowry, who independently defined an acid as a compound which donates a hydrogen and a base In chemistry, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept hydrogen ions. Bases are also the oxides or hydroxides of metals. A soluble base is also often referred to as an alkali if hydroxide ions are involved. This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases. Alternative definitions of bases include, can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are:
  • Arrhenius An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. Several concepts that provide alternative definitions for the reaction mechanisms involved and their application in solving related problems exist. Despite several differences in definitions, their importance becomes apparent as different methods of analysis when definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H₃O⁺ ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH^- ions.
  • Brønsted-Lowry In chemistry, the Brønsted-Lowry theory is an acid-base theory, proposed independently by Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry in 1923. In this system, an acid is defined as any chemical species that is able to lose, or "donate" a hydrogen ion (proton), and a base is a species with the ability to gain or "accept" definition: Acids are proton (H⁺) donors; bases are proton acceptors. Includes the Arrhenius definition.
  • Lewis An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. Several concepts that provide alternative definitions for the reaction mechanisms involved and their application in solving related problems exist. Despite several differences in definitions, their importance becomes apparent as different methods of analysis when definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors; bases are electron-pair donors. Includes the Brønsted-Lowry definition.
• Redox reactions Redox describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. This can be either a simple redox process such as the oxidation of carbon to yield carbon dioxide or the reduction of carbon by hydrogen to yield methane (CH4), or it can be a complex process such as the oxidation of sugar in the human body, in which changes in oxidation numbers In coordination chemistry, the oxidation number of a central atom in a coordination compound is the charge that it would have if all the ligands were removed along with the electron pairs that were shared with the central atom . Imagine the central atom of a molecule being stripped of all its appendages, and the intervening electrons going with of atoms in involved species occur. Those reactions can often be interpreted as transferences of electrons between different molecular sites or species. An example of a redox reaction is:

2 S₂O₃²⁻(aq) + I₂(aq) → S₄O₆²⁻(aq) + 2 I⁻(aq)

In which I₂ is reduced to I^- and S₂O₃^2- (thiosulfate Thiosulfate , sometimes spelled thiosulphate, is an oxyanion of sulfur produced by the reaction of sulfite ions with elemental sulfur in boiling water. Thiosulfate occurs naturally in hot springs and geysers, and is produced by certain biochemical processes. It rapidly dechlorinates water, and is notable for its use to halt bleaching in the paper- anion) is oxidized to S₄O₆^2-.

• Combustion, a kind of redox reaction in which any combustible substance combines with an oxidizing element, usually oxygen, to generate heat and form oxidized products. The term combustion is usually used for only large-scale oxidation of whole molecules, i.e. a controlled oxidation of a single functional group is not combustion.

C₁₀H₈+ 12 O₂ → 10 CO₂ + 4 H₂O

CH₂S + 6 F₂ → CF₄ + 2 HF + SF₆

• Disproportionation a redox reaction in which one reactant forming two distinct products varying in oxidation state.

2 Sn²⁺ → Sn + Sn⁴⁺

Organic reactions encompass a wide assortment of reactions involving compounds which have carbon as the main element in their molecular structure. The reactions in which an organic compound may take part are largely defined by its functional groups.

Chemical kinetics

The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how the concentration or pressure of the involved substances changes with time. Analysis of reaction rates is important for several applications, such as in chemical engineering or in chemical equilibrium study. Rates of reaction depends basically on:

• Reactant concentrations, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit time,
• Surface area available for contact between the reactants, in particular solid ones in heterogeneous systems. Larger surface area leads to higher reaction rates.
• Pressure, by increasing the pressure, you decrease the volume between molecules. This will increase the frequency of collisions of molecules.
• Activation energy, which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies that the reactants need more energy to start than a reaction with a lower activation energy.
• Temperature, which hastens reactions if raised, since higher temperature increases the energy of the molecules, creating more collisions per unit time,
• The presence or absence of a catalyst. Catalysts are substances which change the pathway (mechanism) of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again.
• For some reactions, the presence of electromagnetic radiation, most notably ultraviolet, is needed to promote the breaking of bonds to start the reaction. This is particularly true for reactions involving radicals.

Reaction rates are related to the concentrations of substances involved in reactions, as quantified by the rate law of each reaction. Note that some reactions have rates that are independent of reactant concentrations. These are called zero order reactions.

Reactions and Energy

Chemical energy is part of all chemical reactions. Energy is needed to break chemical bonds in the starting substances. As new bonds form in the final substances, energy is released. By comparing the chemical energy of the original substances with the chemical energy of the final substances, you can decide if energy is released or absorbed in the overall reaction.

Exothermic Reactions

A chemical reaction in which energy is released is called an exothermic reaction. Exo means "go out" or "exit." Thermic means "heat" or "energy." Exothermic reactions can give off energy in several forms. If heat is released in an exothermic reaction, the nearby matter will become warmer. The nearby matter absorbs the heat released by the reaction. The reaction between gasoline and oxygen in a car's engine is an exothermic reaction.

See also

• List of reactions
• Organic reaction
• Stoichiometry
• Stoichiometric coefficient
• Transition state theory
• Gas stoichiometry
• Thermodynamic databases for pure substances
• Autocatalytic reaction
• Coefficients
• Q values

Further reading

• Is This Reaction a Substitution, Oxidation-Reduction, or Transfer? / N.S.Imyanitov. J. Chem. Educ. 1993, 70(1), 14 – 16.

References

1. ^ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. "chemical reaction". Compendium of Chemical Terminology Internet edition.

Categories: Chemical reactions | Chemistry

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